Published: June 7, 2025

Abstract | full-text PDF

Concerns about the detrimental effects of screen time on adolescents’ academic achievement are widespread. However, this perspective often overlooks the potential educational benefits of online leisure time, and gender differences in online and offline activities.

We examine the relationship between digital media use (social media, video games, etc.), digital skills, and standardized test scores (SAT) in a sample of 2,582 students in grades 8-11. Using path analysis, we find a compensatory mechanism. Like unstructured time spent in-person with peers, time spent on social media has a small, negative, direct relationship to academic achievement. However, unlike time spent in-person, digital activities offset the small, negative relationship to achievement with a larger, positive, indirect relationship through digital skills. Notably, boys benefit more than girls in reading and writing from unstructured digital media use, with little difference in math. This potentially mitigates some gender-based achievement gaps. Gender differences are tied to media preferences and the relationship between different digital activities and different digital skills.

These findings challenge the simplistic view that unstructured leisure time spent on digital media is inherently harmful or unproductive. We underscore the need for shifts in policy and parenting practices to recognize the benefits of casual leisure and unstructured time with peers, both online and offline, for learning and development.

Published: September 18, 2023

Motivation & Background | Link to PDF

The COVID-19 pandemic rapidly changed how Americans viewed the importance of broadband Internet connectivity. In a short period of time, a national emergency shifted how and where people accessed work and education, how they interacted with friends and family, and how they spent their time. An inadequate infrastructure for broadband access left rural Americans and particularly rural youth at higher risk. This study was designed to assess the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on home Internet connectivity, student achievement, and adolescent well-being. The focus is on middle and high school students enrolled in rural and small-town schools.
This report builds on the findings of a study on Broadband and Student Performance Gaps released in the weeks before the start of the COVID-19 pandemic (Hampton et al., 2020). That report highlighted the low levels of broadband access by rural Michigan students and the detrimental impact from a lack of access on their academic performance, educational aspirations, career choices, and general well-being. In 2022, we returned to the same schools that we first surveyed in 2019. We asked students about their experience with Internet technologies and with learning from home during the pandemic. Our findings paint a picture of how rural school districts and other stakeholders rapidly mobilized to address a national crisis. In a remarkably short period of time, schools accessed state and federal resources to close gaps in rural Internet access and computing devices.

Key Findings

At the height of the COVID-19 pandemic, during the 2020-21 school year, the vast majority of rural Michigan students spent considerable time learning from home like many students across the country. Our findings show that students with better home Internet access experienced fewer problems learning from home. We found evidence that learning from home boosted students’ competencies with digital technologies. It also helped insulate some students from a broad pandemic decline in career interests related to science, technology, math, and engineering (STEM).  During the COVID-19 pandemic, learning from home did not, however, protect students from a large drop in intention to pursue post-secondary education at a college or university. Although students reported exceptionally high feelings of isolation during the pandemic, these feelings have rapidly diminished. We found no substantive difference in young people’s self-esteem in comparison to before the pandemic. Young people are now spending more time in person with their friends than they did in the years before the pandemic. As youth leisure activities shifted, we also found that those young people, who spend more time using a variety of media, especially social media, are spending the most time in person with friends.

Published: August 29, 2025

Abstract | Full-Text PDF

To extend our understanding of CASA and account for changes in technological complexity and configuration, this research asks: Do increasing levels of social cues in a media representative that is separate from the core technology it represents lead to increased perceived anthropomorphism of the core technology? And: does such perceived anthropomorphism predict positive treatment of the core technology?

We conducted two complementary studies observing e-scooter use and treatment, an online experiment focused on responses to video stimuli and a field experiment focused on actual user behavior. Findings suggest that, indeed, social cues in a media representative (i.e., an e-scooter rental mobile application) of a separate core technology (i.e., the e-scooter itself ) leads to positive attitudes about the core technology, potentially because of increased perceived anthropomorphism.

Published: December 1, 2022

Abstract | PDF

The present work examines why some studies of the Proteus effect—the phenomenon that people tend to conform behaviorally and attitudinally to their avatars’ identity characteristics—facilitate the phenomenon more effectively than others. A previous meta-analysis of the Proteus effect (Ratan et al., 2020) failed to examine potentially notable moderating factors of the phenomenon, so we examine such factors through a meta-analysis of the 56 quantitative experimental Proteus effect studies published at the time of this analysis. Studies that utilized virtual reality technology (e.g., head-mounted displays) elicited stronger effect sizes than those that utilized flat screens, as hypothesized. No support was found for the hypothesis that effect sizes differ by software type utilized (commercial or custom-built). We offer suggestions for future research into the Proteus effect, and how to best examine possible variables of the phenomenon.

Published: September 1, 2024

Highlights | PDF

• Zoom fatigue is associated with a greater appreciation for avatar customization in the future of the virtual workplace.

• People of color exhibited a stronger preference for avatar customization in the virtual workplace compared to Whites.

• The inclination to purchase in-game items forecasts future behaviors of customizing avatars in a professional environment.

• Customizing avatars in the virtual workplace reflects motivations for impression management and strategic self-presentation.

Abstract

Virtual economies with 3D assets have been studied for decades, often in the context of entertainment, but the concept of the metaverse as a workplace platform has only recently begun to take hold. This research addresses a gap in our understanding of how the enhanced ability for impression management in the metaverse workplace may relate to worker well-being and equity. We explore how demographics and previous virtual meeting (VM) experiences relate to people's valuation of self-presentation in the metaverse, reflected by willingness to pay for avatar customizations in a work context. Survey responses from a general population of adults (n = 553) suggest that the valuation of avatar customization in the metaverse workplace was predicted by VM fatigue, gamers' propensity to purchase virtual items, and demographics. People of color and women exhibited higher intentions to purchase avatar customization in the metaverse workplace. These results support the reasoning that the demand for impression management in the metaverse workplace will likely motivate avatar customization, and that gamers are likely to be the early adopters of paid avatar customization options in the non-game metaverse. This study contributes to an understanding of the role avatar customization has for a self-presentation strategy to meet norms in the future metaverse workplace. We discuss implications of VM fatigue and self-presentation concerns from the perspective of an equitable avatar-mediated workplace.

Published: May 22, 2025

(Purpose) The metaverse—a network of three-dimensional virtual worlds in which people can engage in everyday activities—could augment future workplaces given the widespread acceptance of remote work. While it is not fully conceptualized, many have experienced, observed, or learned about metaverse-related technologies (e.g., online gaming, virtual reality), which will likely influence their openness to using the metaverse for professional purposes. In order to understand what the future of such remote work may look like, our exploratory research proposes that openness to the metaverse workplace (OMW) predicts eventual adoption of this impending technology. 

(Design/Methodology/Approach) We conducted a survey-based study (N = 604) to examine how OMW and (in contrast) openness to metaverse entertainment (OME) relate to differences in gender, videoconferencing fatigue, and metaverse information seeking. 

(Findings) We found that OMW was positively related to OME. However, OMW ratings were lower than OME and gender differences in OMW and OME were mediated by videoconferencing fatigue and metaverse information-seeking. 

(Originality/Values) These findings extend the literature on mediated communication in professional contexts and suggest that the metaverse workplace will suffer from gender inequity, at least in the near-term future.